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Annual population dynamics of mango fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in West Africa: socio-economic aspects, host phenology and implications for management
- Jean-François Vayssières, Antonio Sinzogan, Appolinaire Adandonon, Jean-Yves Rey, Elhadj Oumar Dieng, Koumandian Camara, Morodian Sangaré, Sylvain Ouedraogo, N’klo Hala, Adama Sidibé, Youssouf Keita, Guy Gogovor, Sam Korie, Ousmane Coulibaly, Cinthia Kikissagbé, Alliance Tossou, Max Billah, Koffi Biney, Oswald Nobime, Paterne Diatta, Robert N’Dépo, Moussa Noussourou, Lanciné Traoré, Symphorien Saizonou, Manuele Tamo
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Introduction. Losses in West African commercial mango orchards due to fruit fly infestations have exceeded 50% by the middle of the crop season since 2005, resulting in considerable income loss for the growers. Materials and methods. In 2009, weekly monitoring of adult fruit fly species of economic significance was carried out in eight West African countries at 12 sites across five agro-ecological zones: (i) Humid Forest, (ii) Guinean savanna, (iii) Southern Sudan, (iv) Northern Sudan, and (v) Sahelian. Trapping was performed using methyl eugenol and terpinyl acetate in 288 Tephri-traps, targeting Bactrocera invadens and Ceratitis cosyra. Results. The data showed that B. invadens was present throughout the year in the Forest zone, abundant for 7 months, with a peak in May at the end of the mango season, C. cosyra being totally absent. In the Guinean savanna zone, B. invadens was abundant for 6-7 months, with a peak at the beginning of June coinciding with the season, with a few C. cosyra. In the Southern Sudan zone, B. invadens was abundant for 6 months, with a peak in mid-June during the season, C. cosyra peaking in April. In the Northern Sudan zone, B. invadens was abundant for 5 months, with a peak at the end of June at the end of the season, C. cosyra peaking in May. In the Sahelian zone, B. invadens was abundant for 4 months, peaking in August during the season, C. cosyra peaking just before. These preliminary results showed that the exotic species, B. invadens, was present at high levels [mean peak of 378 flies per trap per day (FTD)] in all agro-ecological zones, while the native species, C. cosyra, preferred the drier zones of West Africa, with lower population levels (mean peak of 77 FTD). Conclusion. Detection trapping of male flies with parapheromones is a useful indicator of field population levels and could be used to deploy control measures (IPM package) in a timely manner when the Economic Injury Level is reached. Control strategies for these quarantine mango fruit fly species are discussed with respect to agro-ecological zones and the phenological stages of the mango tree.
Fruit phenology of citruses, mangoes and papayas influences egg-laying preferences of Bactrocera invadens (Diptera: Tephritidae)
- Paterne Diatta, Jean-Yves Rey, Jean-François Vayssieres, Karamoko Diarra, Emile Victor Coly, Mathieu Lechaudel, Isabelle Grechi, Saliou Ndiaye, Ousmane Ndiaye
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Introduction. African fruit production, as well as regional and international fruit trade, have experienced heavy economic losses over the past decade due to the damage caused by fruit flies, especially B. invadens Drew Tsuruta & White (Tephritidae: Diptera). Bactrocerainvadens attacks fruits belonging to numerous botanical families, several of which are of great economic importance. The females of these flies generally lay their eggs in mature fruits, but some can lay in green-immature fruits. Materials and methods. The influence of the species, variety and phenology of fruits on the fruit attractiveness to B. invadens and the elicitation of B. invadens egg-laying behaviour were studied in the laboratory. Fruits harvested regularly during the years 2008 and 2009 from orchards in the Niayes area (Senegal) were exposed to gravid females in cages set for the different factors tested. The exposed fruits were then incubated and the pupae emerging from them were counted. Results and discussion. Bactrocera invadens females laid eggs in ripe fruits. Within the same fruit species, the variety plays an important role in egg-laying preference. Hence, among the mango varieties tested, the Pêche variety hosted the highest number of pupae per fruit, while the Palmer variety hosted the lowest number. Comparison among different fruit species showed that mature papaya was more infested than mature mango or citrus. Furthermore, flies were unable to develop on lime. Conclusion. Our study showed that B. invadens can infest green and ripe host fruits, and even immature abscised fruits. Consequently, management of this pest must include preventive measures in the development and implementation of an integrated management system.
Mango-based orchards in Senegal: diversity of design and management patterns
- Isabelle Grechi, Cheikh Amet Bassirou Sane, Lamine Diame, Hubert De Bon, Aurore Benneveau, Thierry Michels, Virginie Huguenin, Eric Malezieux, Karamoko Diarra, Jean-Yves Rey
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Introduction. Mango-based orchards in Senegal occur in a large diversity of cropping systems, but few typologies of these systems exist and none are associated with their comprehensive and quantitative analysis. In this study we defined and characterized the typology of these systems based on a quantitative assessment of their planting design, management, vegetative state, hedgerow structure and infestation by a major pest of mango, the Bactrocera invadens fly. Materials and methods. Multivariate analysis and clustering methods were applied to data from 64 mango-based orchards and their surrounding hedgerows sampled in the Dakar and Thiès regions, in Senegal. Results and discussion. Four types of cropping systems were identified according to orchard design and management patterns: (1) ‘No-input mango diversified orchards’, (2) ‘Low-input mango orchards’, (3) ‘Medium-input citrus-predominant orchards’ and (4) ‘Medium-input large mango- or citrus-predominant orchards’. Orchard characteristics varied among these patterns. For instance, vegetation was dense and homogeneous in system 1, and the mortality rate of trees was high in system 2 but low in system 3. Orchards of systems 3 and 4 were mostly associated with hedgerows with, respectively, boundary-marking and defensive species. Lastly, the number of B. invadens flies was high in orchards of system 4, whereas it was low in those of system 2. Conclusion. The diversity of mango-based cropping systems in Senegal is now well described and quantified. This characterization is a preliminary step that is essential for further studies aiming to improve these systems.
Seasonality and range of fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) host plants in orchards in Niayes and the Thiès Plateau (Senegal)
- Ousmane Ndiaye, Jean-François Vayssieres, Jean Yves Rey, Saliou Ndiaye, Papa Madialéké Diedhiou, Cheikh Tidiane Ba, Paterne Diatta
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Introduction. Senegal produces up to 150,000 t of fruit, of which 60,000 t are mangoes. Fruit production is important for the Niayes region, where 60% of total production is of mangoes, with citrus production coming next at 24%. Mango losses have become more substantial since the arrival of Bactrocera invadens in Senegal. The pest population increases in the mango ripening period, but little is known about its secondary hosts. Materials and methods. Fruits of cultivated and wild plants were collected regularly from April to December 2008 inside and around 19 orchards in eleven localities in the Niayes and Thiès areas in Senegal. The samples were monitored to identify any fruit flies present so that a list of host plants could be compiled. For mango, the study focused on establishing the influence of certain parameters such as the variety, the fruit size, the color, the flowering pattern and the physiological levels of infestation due to B. invadens and Ceratitis cosyra. Orchards were classified either as traditional (many mango varieties and many fruit species grown together in a stand) or intensive (fields of monovarietal mango trees), according to their composition and how they were managed. Results and discussion. A total of 663.2 kg of fruit, including those of 24 mango varieties, 13 citrus species with five lime varieties, two orange varieties and four pomelo varieties along with other cultivated and wild plants, were sampled both as fallen fruit and from the trees. Traditional orchards were more infested than the modern ones. B. invadens was significantly dominant over the other flies emerging such as C. cosyra, C. capitata, C. punctata, C. bremii, Bactrocera cucurbitae, Capparimyia bipustulata, Carpomyia sp. and Dacus sp. B. invadens was found on the 24 varieties of Mangifera indica, the 13 citrus species, and the other cultivated plants and wild plants sampled. Some host plants supported a relatively high level of fruit flies before the mango ripening period. Mangifera indica was infested principally by B. invadens and C. cosyra. C. cosyra was significantly present on the first fruit trees to flower, mostly in early varieties, while B. invadens infested all the varieties whatever the fruit development stage, the color, or the flowering pattern. Conclusion. Because of the host plants' diversity and varieties the traditional orchards were more infested than the modern ones. The management of this pest needs an Integrated Pest Management system based on a back-to-basics study of the infesting fruit flies, existing parasitoids and their hosts.
Distribution and host plants of Bactrocera cucurbitae in West and Central Africa.
- Jean-François Vayssières, Jean-Yves Rey, Lanciné Traoré
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Introduction. The data on Bactrocera cucurbitae collected over a large area of West Africa for around the past ten years enables us to make a synthesis, since this economically significant species is now widespread. Fruit samples were collected in the course of various trips to Africa; we focused on looking for the melon fly, B. cucurbitae (Coquillett). Equipment and methods. The Tephritidae were captured by means of trapping the adults and collecting holed fruit containing larvae. The fruit samples were taken from Cucurbitaceae found in the sub-region, and from other plant families hosting melon fly larvae. Fruit holed by flies were collected from untreated orchards and taken to the laboratory to be weighed, counted and classified by species, variety, date and location. The larvae collected metamorphosed into pupae. After hatching from the pupae, the adults were recovered. Results and discussion. The samples taken enabled us to determine the distribution of B. cucurbitae in West Africa; this species was found in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Mali, Niger and Senegal. The fruit collected in these countries enabled us to draw up a list of B. cucurbitae host plants in these regions; besides Cucurbitaceae, there were two Anacardiaceae species, two Rutaceae species, one Annonaceae species, one Solanaceae species and one Oxalidaceae species. There were four economically important fruit species among them. Unlike Reunion, where the dietary pattern of the melon fly is oligophagous, in West Africa it appears to be polyphagous instead. Conclusion. The data collected from B. cucurbitae host plants is subsequently to be validated, and then refined by quantitative analyses for the different West African countries.
The mango in French-speaking West Africa: cropping systems and agronomical practices
- Henri Vannière, Christian Didier, Jean-Yves Rey, Thierno Mamadou Diallo, Sidiki Kéita, Morodjan Sangaré
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Introduction. Cropping systems of the mango trees in West Africa are very varied. Each one of them developed in a specific context where the agronomical practices and the varietal composition of the orchards contribute to the diversity observed. The study undertaken should make it possible to better understand the influence of the potential outlets on the evolution of the regional mango production. Principal cropping systems. In the studied area, the main part of the mango orchards has less than 10 ha; their production is extensive and uses few inputs. They belong in majority to growers whose principal activity is centred on agriculture. Certain plantations close to 100 ha, found in Senegal or in Côte.d'ivoire, belong to exporters and profit from a technical assistance. Agronomical practices. The study of the agronomical practices used in mango orchards of West Africa made it possible to analyze the aspects of seedling production, choice of the site, installation of the orchard before plantation, plantation and maintenance of the trees, fire protection, water management, as well as the effect of the export market on the varietal choice and the varietal offer during a harvest campaign. Diseases and enemies. An inventory of the pathological problems and physiological diseases likely to devalue the production were carried out. Marketing. This part made it possible to distinguish intercontinental exports, requiring a specific harvest and conditioning organization, and the local, national and regional markets. Processing. Today, the share of transformed mangos into West Africa uses only one negligible proportion of the total production. Conclusion and prospects. Beside a traditional production which presents signs of brittleness appear modern orchards. More than a necessary intensification of the orchards, a rationalization of the agronomical practices, plant health protection, fruit harvest or handling are impossible to circumvent. Downstream, the export path is confronted with a fast evolution of the exogenous regulations, based on qualitative and sanitary standards increasingly strict.
The mango in French-speaking West Africa: varieties and varietal composition of the orchards
- Jean-Yves Rey, Thierno Mamadou Diallo, Henri Vannière, Christian Didier, Sidiki Kéita, Morodjan Sangaré
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Introduction. The mango tree is one of the most widespread fruit trees in West Africa. A history of its introduction into that area was recently published. To follow upon this document, the presented analysis was devoted to the principal varieties that are cultivated there today and to the impact of the historical and commercial factors on the varietal composition of the orchards. Some definitions. In precondition to an inventory of the varieties, certain terms making it possible to characterise them were specified (precocity, monoembryony and polyembryony) and some information on the origin of the Floridian varieties was provided. Principal varieties cultivated in West Africa. Four mango variety categories were distinguished: varieties of local or polyembryonic mangos (mangots and Number One), first monoembryonic varieties propagated by grafting (Amélie, Julie, Sabot, Djibelor and Cuisse Madame), and the Floridian varieties, also monoembryonic and propagated by grafting, introduced later and used either for export (Kent, Keitt, Palmer, Zill, Valencia, Smith, Irwin and Haden), or for the regional markets (Brooks, Davis-Haden, Miami Late, Springfels, Beverly, Eldon and Ruby). Each variety was described, like its farming characteristics and its outlets. The composition of the grafted mango tree orchards. This composition is influenced by the historical evolution and the purpose of the fruits that can be eaten, sold on the local, national or subregional market, exported toward the international market or processed in artisanal or industrial units. This orchard composition was specified for Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal and Togo.
The mango in French-speaking West Africa
- Jean-Yves Rey, Thierno Mamadou Diallo, Henri Vannière, Christian Didier, Sidiki Kéita, Morodjan Sangaré
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Introduction. The mango tree today, very appreciated in West Africa for its fruit and its shade, is, however, of recent introduction in Africa. The article presents the history of its expansion in the zone. Mango tree expansion in West Africa. Originating from India, the mango tree was reported for the first time in West Africa, in Senegal, in 1824. It was at the end of the xixth century that the mango trees began to have a significant distribution, especially in the coastal zones. Their extension became significant during the first half of the xxth century. An Amélie mango tree introduced in Mali around the 1890s allowed the grafting of many trees, which were widely distributed in the bordering countries. At the end of the 1940s, collections were gradually established in the entire zone and, during the decade 1970–1980, every country in French-speaking West Africa had at least a collection of mango trees. Export trends. Mali was the first country to export mangos towards Europe, around the end of the 1960s. It was followed by Burkina Faso, Guinea, Senegal, and especially the Côte d’Ivoire, whose exports, of approximately 2 500 t at the beginning of the 1990s, were multiplied by 4.5 in 2000. This fast growth of exports from the Côte d’Ivoire profited from the presence of a maritime front and of a mass effect created by pineapple and banana exports. Amélie for a long time constituted the main part of the exports of Mali, Burkina Faso and the Côte d’Ivoire. However, since 1971, experimental shipments of colored mangos have been successfully realized. With mango consumption becoming democratized in Europe, the choice of exported varieties was gradually tightened: Amélie, at the beginning of the harvest season, then Kent, Keitt and Palmer. Parallel to this varietal evolution, the packaging techniques were gradually modernized.
La mangue en Afrique de l’Ouest francophone : les systèmes de production et les itinéraires techniques
- Henri Vannière, Christian Didier, Jean-Yves Rey, Thierno Mamadou Diallo, Sidiki Kéita, Morodjan Sangaré
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Introduction. Les systèmes de production du manguier en Afrique de l’Ouest sont très variés. Chacun d’eux s’est développé dans un contexte spécifique où l’itinéraire technique et la composition variétale des plantations contribuent à la diversité observée. L’étude entreprise devrait permettre de mieux comprendre l’influence des débouchés potentiels sur l’évolution de cette filière horticole. Les principaux systèmes de plantation. Dans la région étudiée, l’essentiel des vergers de manguiers exploités a moins de 10 ha ; leur production est extensive et utilise peu d’intrants. Ils appartiennent en majorité à des planteurs dont l’activité principale est centrée sur l’agriculture. Certaines plantations proches de 100 ha, trouvées au Sénégal ou en Côte d’Ivoire, appartiennent à des exportateurs et bénéficient d’un encadrement technique. Les itinéraires techniques. L’étude des itinéraires techniques utilisés en vergers de manguiers en Afrique de l’Ouest a permis d’analyser les aspects de production de plants, choix du site, aménagement du verger avant plantation, plantation et entretien des arbres, protection contre les incendies, alimentation hydrique, ainsi que l’effet du marché d’exportation sur le choix variétal et l’offre variétale au cours d’une campagne de récolte. Maladies et ennemis. Un inventaire des problèmes pathologiques et des maladies physiologiques susceptibles de dévaloriser la production a été effectué. Commercialisation. Cette partie a permis de distinguer les exportations intercontinentales, nécessitant une organisation spécifique de la récolte et du conditionnement, et les marchés locaux, nationaux et régionaux. La transformation. Aujourd’hui, la part des mangues transformées en Afrique de l’Ouest n’utilise qu’une proportion infime de la production totale. Conclusion et perspectives. À côté d’une production traditionnelle qui présente des signes de fragilité apparaissent des vergers modernes. Plus qu’une intensification des vergers, par ailleurs nécessaire, une rationalisation des pratiques agronomiques, de la protection phytosanitaire, de la récolte ou de la manipulation des fruits est incontournable. En aval, la filière d’exportation se trouve confrontée à une évolution rapide des réglementations exogènes, basées sur des normes qualitatives et sanitaires de plus en plus strictes.
La mangue en Afrique de l’Ouest francophone : variétés et composition variétale des vergers
- Jean-Yves Rey, Thierno Mamadou Diallo, Henri Vannière, Christian Didier, Sidiki Kéita, Morodjan Sangaré
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Introduction. Le manguier est l’un des arbres fruitiers les plus répandus en Afrique de l’Ouest. Un historique de son introduction dans la zone a été publié récemment. Pour faire suite à ce document, l’analyse présentée a été consacrée aux principales variétés qui y sont cultivées aujourd’hui et à l’impact des facteurs historiques et commerciaux sur la composition variétale des vergers. Quelques définitions. En préalable à un inventaire des variétés, certains termes permettant de les caractériser ont été précisés (précocité, monoembryonie et polyembryonie) et quelques informations sur l’origine des variétés floridiennes ont été fournies. Les principales variétés cultivées en Afrique de l’Ouest. Quatre catégories ont été distinguées : les variétés de mangues locales ou polyembryonnées (mangots, mangue du Cameroun), les premières variétés monoembryonnées propagées par greffage (Amélie, Julie, Sabot, Djibelor, Cuisse Madame), les variétés floridiennes, également monoembryonnées et propagées par greffage, introduites plus tardivement et utilisées soit pour l’exportation (Kent, Keitt, Palmer, Zill, Valencia, Smith, Irwin, Haden), soit pour les marchés régionaux (Brooks, Davis-Haden, Miami Late, Springfels, Beverly, Eldon, Ruby). Chaque variété a été décrite, de même ses caractéristiques culturales et ses débouchés. La composition des vergers de manguiers greffés. La composition des vergers greffés est influencée par l’évolution historique et la destination des fruits qui peuvent être autoconsommés, vendus sur le marché local, national ou sous-régional, exportés sur le marché international ou transformés dans des unités artisanales ou industrielles. Cette composition a été précisée pour la Guinée, le Mali, le Burkina-Faso, la Côte d’Ivoire, le Sénégal et le Togo.
La mangue en Afrique de l’Ouest francophone
- Jean-Yves Rey, Thierno Mamadou Diallo, Henri Vannière, Christian Didier, Sidiki Kéita, Morodjan Sangaré
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Introduction. Le manguier aujourd’hui très apprécié en Afrique de l’Ouest pour ses fruits et son ombrage est pourtant d’introduction récente en Afrique. L’article retrace l’historique de son expansion dans la zone. L'expansion du manguier en Afrique de l’Ouest. Originaire d’Inde, le manguier a été signalé pour la première fois en Afrique de l’Ouest, au Sénégal, en 1824. C’est à la fin du xixe siècle que les manguiers ont commencé à connaître une diffusion significative, surtout dans les zones côtières. Leur extension deviendra importante pendant la première moitié du xxe siècle. Un manguier Amélie introduit au Mali vers 1890 fut à l’origine de nombreux plants greffés qui furent largement diffusés dans les pays limitrophes. Dès la fin des années 1940, des collections furent établies progressivement dans toute la zone et, au cours de la décennie 1970–1980, chaque pays d’Afrique de l’Ouest francophone possédait au moins une collection de manguiers. l'évolution des exportations. Le Mali fut le premier pays à exporter, vers la fin des années 1960, des mangues vers l’Europe. Il fut suivi par le Burkina, la Guinée, le Sénégal, et surtout la Côte d’Ivoire, dont les exportations, d’environ 2 500 t au début des années 1990, ont été multipliées par 4,5 en 2000. Cette croissance rapide des exportations ivoiriennes a bénéficié de la présence d’une façade maritime et d’un effet de masse créé par les exportations de bananes et d’ananas. Amélie a longtemps constitué l’essentiel des exportations du Mali, du Burkina Faso et de la Côte d’Ivoire. Cependant dès 1971, des expéditions expérimentales de mangues colorées furent réalisées avec succès. La consommation de mangues se démocratisant en Europe, le choix variétal s’est progressivement resserré : Amélie, en début de campagne, puis Kent, Keitt et Palmer. Parallèlement à cette évolution variétale, les techniques de conditionnement se sont progressivement modernisées.